Classical Civilisation and traditional Christian Theology, recognised four cardinal virtues- prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance. The word ‘cardinal’ derives from the Latin word ‘cardo’, meaning hinge. The four cardinal virtues are called so because they are seen as necessary to the existence of all other virtues, for example- we cannot be loyal without fortitude; we cannot be honourable without justice, etc. They are the foundation to all other virtues.

Cesare Ripa, 1603, Prudence, Iconologia

Prudence isn’t a virtue we hear a lot about these days.

When we do, it’s something vaguely related to cautiousness, reluctance, maybe even a quality of the fainthearted- hardly a virtue. Why then, was prudence believed to be a cardinal virtue for all those centuries?

“Affairs are easier of entrance than of exit; and it is but common prudence to see our way out before we venture in.”

Aesop’s Fables, 6th Century, The Sick Lion

Reason and Foresight

Many philosophers believed that much of what it means to be prudent, lies in the ability to rule with reason. Aristotle in Nicomachean Ethics, includes what he calls ‘phronesis’, practical wisdom, or prudence, as an intellectual virtue. This means that he believes it a success of the mind more so than a success in morals. To be prudent means to be able to recognise the correct path, decision, or action in any given situation. It is the ability to deliberate successfully. Part of this suggests that it is also a triumph over raw emotions, which can often control and direct our decision-making process.

As we might expect, to be prudent also means to have foresight. Every truly good decision is good now, tomorrow, and into the future. We must consider the potential consequences of our actions in the long term, meaning that what is prudent is never what is expedient.

“Strange, that some of us, with quick alternative vision, see beyond our infatuations, and even while we rave on the heights, behold the wide plain where our persistent self pauses and awaits us.”

George Eliot, 1871, Middlemarch

Piero del Pollaiolo, 1469/70, Prudence

The ‘Good’

There has been a lot of talk about aiming for the good, but what good? Thomas Aquinas, in Summa Theologica, stated that a prudent person deliberates and chooses a path to what is ultimately good for him, and for human beings in general. This is where we see how close the intellectual virtue of prudence is to a moral virtue. Aquinas says that a man cannot be prudent with unethical aims (ST, Second Part of Second Part, Question 47, Article 13.). He outlines prudence as threefold:

1) The first type of prudence serves to cleverly devise a path, but to unethical ends. Wit, cunning and cleverness are not the same as prudence. 2)The second leads to a specific good. He gives an example of a prudent businessman, who although does devise a fitting way to a good end, it is imperfect as it is too narrow. He is a prudent businessman, as oppose to a prudent man.

3) The last type is true prudence, the ability to devise a path to the ultimate, overall good for your life and for humans in general. Aquinas believed that you could not be virtuous without being prudent, and you could not be prudent without being virtuous.

Do not judge. We are so quick to demonize others, when we ourselves hold our own depravities. We all have both darkness and light.

In recent history, the virtue of temperance has been associated with strict asceticism. A joyless lifestyle, filled with self-deprivation and suppression. But temperance was never meant to be an extreme. When we look further back in time, we find its essence and purpose. Quotes from Aristotle, Aquinas, Seneca & more.

Like handing someone a glass of water while they are engulfed in flames, it does very little. The danger is that we are only really fulfilling our own need or want to be ‘compassionate’ people, in this vain sense.

We don’t want to venture down there and face the damage we have caused. The alternative however, is more devastation every time the truth comes knocking; and it will keep coming. So, we muster every ounce of courage we have left, open the hatch door, and delve underground.

Even though we may think the ‘reality’ we have built is solid, when it holds no truth, it is under constant danger of collapsing. One cracked brick is no big deal, but if every brick we use is cracked, we end up with a completely unstable structure.

When we compare ourselves to others, we highlight our differences and in doing so, highlight our own inferiorities. We start believing that we are unhappy because of these things we lack in comparison, and envy creeps in.

This proverb is an adaptation of a line from the Gospel of Matthew in the New Testament of the Bible. That text reads “Give not that which is holy unto dogs, neither cast ye your pearls before swine…” (Matthew 7:6, KJV). In its original context, most people believe that it means that the gospel, the word of God and all that is holy, will not be valued by everyone. Some believe that Jesus was warning his disciples against preaching to those who do not know, or refuse to acknowledge the value of the gospel. He was warning against sharing what is holy with those who only wished to ridicule and blaspheme.

Its origins lie in the religious, but this proverb can easily be understood in a more general sense as well.

Firstly, we should realise that not everyone puts value in the same things we do. Not everyone appreciates what is precious. Therefore, we should think carefully about who we trust with what is dear to us. For example- who we give our love to, our loyalty to, our time to. Or perhaps who we try to help, who we share our passions and dreams with, etc. By ‘casting our pearls’ before those who have no intention of understanding or appreciating, we are reducing what is precious and putting it in harm’s way. There’s a sense that it is our responsibility to protect what is valuable from those who would ‘trample them under their feet.’

Notoriously, Jesus preached to the sinners and more unpopular members of the community.

So this proverb is not suggesting that we be judgemental in the negative sense of the word. It’s more about being able to discern those who have no wish to engage, understand or accept and to move on with our pearls intact. Jesus said “And whosoever shall not receive you, nor hear your words, when ye depart out of that house or city, shake off the dust of your feet” (Matthew 10:14, KJV). We’re advised not to cast judgement upon people, but to act judiciously when dealing with what is valuable.

Carl Bloch, 1877, Sermon on the Mount Tagged development, proverbs, wisdom

In past centuries, everything was done by hand, so in order to get anything done, people needed to work. The Industrial Revolution meant that the labour of people wasn’t required to the same degree. The more sophisticated machinery and industries became, the more ‘free time’ people had. And that is what ‘leisure time’ meant in the past- ‘free time’. Time unrestricted by obligations and duties of work, family, etc. People were free, in this time, to pursue whatever their heart desired.

“What we do during our working hours determines what we have; what we do in our leisure hours determines what we are.”

George Eastman, 1952, Image Magazine

William Wyld, 1852, A View of Manchester from Kersal Moor

How people spent their precious leisure time in past centuries, and what we indulge in now, could hardly be described as the same thing.

This invaluable time away from toil was an opportunity to pursue individual wants and desires. A time to invest in oneself. Want to learn? Now is your chance to read. Can’t read? Here is your time to learn. Paint, play an instrument, travel, knit, garden, whatever it was- finally, here was the time to do it. In past writings, authors suggested leisure time to be a spell of real meaning. Free from restrictions, people could lift themselves from the ground and look up to the sky through their personal pursuits.

“To stand up straight and tread the turning mill, To lie flat and know nothing and be still, Are the two trades of man; and which is worse

I know not, but I know that both are ill.”

A.E. Housman,1936, XXVII, More Poems

Fast forward, and our idea and pursuit of ‘leisure time’ looks quite different.

It has become more common that we consume rather than create in our free time. Leisure time now means to lounge, to indulge, vegetate and hide. We endeavour to think and do as little as possible, in an attempt to escape the tiresome reality of our obligations. Work takes up so much of the week, family takes up a bit more, everyday duties a little more. What should we do with any free time remaining? Nothing, and hope to be able to face the same obligations and duties all over again tomorrow. It has never been so easy to indulge in this kind of ‘leisure’. There is so much to consume that we never have to consider what a hopeless waste of time it all is.

“The relatively new trouble with mass society is perhaps even more serious, but not because of the masses themselves, but because this society is essentially a consumers’ society where leisure time is used no longer for self-perfection or acquisition of more social status, but for more and more consumption and more and more entertainment.”

Hannah Arendt, 1961, Between Past and Future

Georges Seurat, 1884, Bathers at Asnières

And what does time spent so passively mean for us?

Some people get exactly what they wish for- they arise the next day with batteries fully recharged, ready to face another sunrise. But for some- and this may be hard to understand- but for some, this idle, consumptive, boundless, ‘leisure time’, is complete hell. We have all been exhausted, stressed and struggling. All we want is to have just one day where we sit on the couch, eat all the food, all the drink, watch all the television, scroll through social media and we believe that at the end of the day- we will be happy. Except, it doesn’t work like that.

Our lack of productiveness, in fact our complete anti-productiveness, send seeds of anxiety through our veins until it’s swirling around our body. The fact that all we have done is consume, with not one moment of creation or progress, means our anxiety is joined with a sense of worthlessness. We have been consumed by everything we were attempting to consume. We barely recognise our surroundings after being pulled into hours of external entertainment, with which we didn’t have to interact with whatsoever. Becoming nothing; doing nothing; our feet no longer planted on the ground.

“If man is to be liberated to enjoy more leisure, he must also be prepared to enjoy this leisure fully and creatively”

Eleanor Roosevelt, 1937,This is my Story

To lovers of lounging, this might all seem bizarre and neurotic.

But there are many who cite inactivity as a key component in bringing on bouts of depression. For some of us, it would be better if we saw leisure time as they did in previous years- free time to pursue, create, learn, discover and grow. We all need to sit for a while and switch off, but for some of us, this is not something we should do for long. The cost of this kind of leisure time is too high. If being ‘leisurely’ has this kind of effect on you, but exhaustion is battling against you, then fight to do just enough to curb the effects. You don’t need to run a marathon, but act and be present enough to remain in a peaceful state of mind, and to keep your feet planted firmly on the ground.

“One of the most ironic paradoxes of our time is this great availability of leisure that somehow fails to be translated into enjoyment.”

Milhaly Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, Flow

Akseli Gallen-Kallela, 1894, Symposium Tagged character, development, meaning, Suffering, truth

Spanish novelist Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616) is credited with saying that ‘a proverb is a short sentence based on long experience’. Proverbs are often centuries old, providing us with global wisdom’s that have remained relevant throughout time.

This proverb dates back as far as 1640, as seen in E. Roger’s ‘Letter in Winthrop’- “A good fence helpeth to keepe peace between neighbours…”. Famously, it appeared in Robert Frost’s poem ‘North of Boston’ in 1914- “My apple trees will never get across and eat the cones under his pines, I tell him. He only says ‘Good fences make good neighbours”.

In the past, this proverb has often been used in quite a literal sense.

It’s been written of in many different forms to describe how physical boundaries help keep good relations between land owners. Erecting and maintaining good fencing stops animals from crossing over between fields and avoids disagreements and grievances between farmers. Even when used in this literal sense, there is a broader message we can take from it.

Fences are both literally and figuratively, a symbol of boundaries.

They are there to say that what is within these bounds is mine, and should not be interfered with or encroached upon. They exist to keep what is within safe, and keep any posing threats out. Fences are a symbol of privacy. They suggest that what is within their bounds is expected to be safe from external interference.

Healthy boundaries make for healthy relationships.

Boundaries become more defined and rigid as we move out from our inner circle, but even the most intimate relationships have boundaries. A relationship where we reduce and expose ourselves completely to any and all types of behaviour, is not a good one. We should have a clear and defined idea of how we wish to be treated, and how we intend on treating the other. These boundaries are in place to nurture relationships, not to minimize or limit them.

It may sound odd, but to live happily with other people we need to put up fences.

We all must maintain and protect our own safety and wellbeing, then that of our families, our friends and on throughout our circle. When these boundaries are respected by others, trust is built and harmonious relationships can flourish. So, although they may seem divisive and isolating, boundaries are in fact a necessary element in a successful relationship that will sustain itself over time.

Jean-François Millet, The Sheepfold, Moonlight, 1856-1860 Tagged boundaries, character, friendships, love, proverb, relationships, wisdom

“I am sick to death of cleverness. Everybody is clever nowadays. You can’t go anywhere without meeting clever people. The thing has become an absolute public nuisance.”

Oscar Wilde, 1895, The Importance of Being Earnest

We’re constantly concerned with how other people view us and the general state of our regality. We strive to sustain our own ideas of status and what it means to be clever. This isn’t exclusive to any group of people, it transcends all classifications. A man who, to most it seems, has been stripped of any dignities, can still cast a condemnatory eye to the next man on the street. This is because we are all, without exception, haunted by our own sense of pride and self-importance. We fear appearing foolish, less-than, uninformed, and therefore, vulnerable.

“The philosophies of one age have become the absurdities of the next, and the foolishness of yesterday has become the wisdom of tomorrow.”

William Osler, address to the Canadian Medical Association, Montreal (17 September 1902); published in The Montreal Medical Journal, Vol. XXXI (1902)

Our fear of being foolish inhibits us in many ways.

It’s unlikely that we can make much progress, or at least any of real significance, when we’re so fearful of being foolish. We can get to a certain stage but usually to make real strides we need to take chances, and chances always include risk. Here is where we so often stumble, the dread of damaging our dignity looming over us. On the scale of progression, this is where many of us become stationary and eventually grow stale.

“He who lives without committing any folly is not so wise as he thinks.”

François de La Rochefoucauld, 1665, Maximes, 209.

What is most frustrating, is that everyone is ignorant in some sense, ridiculous in many, and foolish in most.

It doesn’t take much observation to see that people are absurd, despite believing ourselves to be constant beacons of reason and sensibility. We all have the potential to behave in preposterous ways, our thoughts and actions often contrary to reason and sound advice. People do and think things that are just down-right bizarre. Even the most dignified of us are absurd fools in private. The all wise, ever reasonable person does not exist, we’re just all trying our best to emulate our notion of it.

“He who thinks himself wise, O heavens! is a great fool.”

Voltaire, 1762, Le Droit du Seigneur, IV. 1.

Pieter Bruegel, 1559, Netherlandish Proverbs Tagged character, honesty, society, transcendence, truth, virtue

Spanish novelist Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616) is credited with saying that ‘a proverb is a short sentence based on long experience’. Proverbs are often centuries old, providing us with global wisdom’s that have remained relevant throughout time.

“The frog in the well knows nothing of the sea.”

This Japanese proverb is said to have come from a Chinese fable which is attributed to philosopher Zhuang Zhou, who lived around the 4th century BC. The fable appears in The Zhuangzi, an ancient Chinese text which is regarded as a foundational text of Taoism. The fable, which was untitled, told a story of a frog who had always lived in his well. He believed his well to be all that existed. He was then visited by a sea turtle who told him of the great ocean. Upon hearing this, the frog realized he had a very limited view of the world. There are a few variations of this proverb, one of which is ‘the frog in the well cannot talk of Heaven’.

Like the frog in his well, we can often believe that what we know, is all that there is to know.

Of course it’s a ridiculous thought, but this is exactly why we often approach situations and conversations with such dogged determination. This proverb warns us to be modest about the extent of our experiences. What we have not lived, we cannot fully understand. It would be easy to acknowledge this in another person, how narrow and restricted their view is. It is however, more difficult to admit our own limitations. We would have to reveal that we don’t know it all. That there may be a whole world outside the boarders of our understanding. We would have no choice but to be humble in our dealings. The benefit in doing so however is that we are open to constant expansion. After all, the frog in the well who now knows of the ocean, is a different frog indeed!

Lu Zhi, Zhuangzi Dreaming of a Butterfly, mid 16th cent. Tagged character, development, proverbs

Classical Civilisation and traditional Christian Theology, recognised four cardinal virtues- prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance. The word ‘cardinal’ derives from the Latin word ‘cardo’, meaning hinge. The four cardinal virtues are called so because they are seen as necessary to the existence of all other virtues, for example- we cannot be loyal without fortitude; we cannot be honourable without justice, etc. They are the foundation to all other virtues.

Lorenzetti, Allegory of the Good Government, 1338–39.

Fortitude is one of the cardinal virtues that most of us probably believe we understand. It is often called courage, strength, endurance-the facing of fears. But as ever, when discussed as a virtue, it becomes multifaceted. What is true and virtuous fortitude?

Vulnerability

Sometimes vulnerability and weakness are linked, but in this context, vulnerability is seen as a catalyst to bravery. To display fortitude, one must be vulnerable. Unless there is a risk of personal injury, then we cannot show fortitude. The fact that we are not impenetrable is what allows us to embody this remarkable virtue. Our vulnerability provides us with an opportunity to choose how we will react in the face of grave threats.

“Fortitude presupposes vulnerability; without vulnerability there is no possibility of fortitude. An angel cannot be brave, because he is not vulnerable…Because man is by nature vulnerable, he can be brave.”

Josef Pieper, The Four Cardinal Virtues, 1965, Fortitude, pg. 117

In his book, The Four Cardinal Virtues, Josef Pieper goes so far as to say that fortitude is intrinsically linked to death -our ultimate vulnerability. To show bravery when faced with the possibility of death is the complete embodiment of fortitude, for death is our ultimate loss. He speaks of ‘readiness’- the readiness to fall, to die, to face your greatest injury. And all in the name of the greater good.

“All fortitude stands in the presence of death.”

Josef Pieper, The Four Cardinal Virtues, 1965, Fortitude, pg. 117

The Greater Good

So why would one be so ready to ‘fall in battle’? It is after all, the most natural instinct in the world to do whatever is necessary to survive. Piper suggests that a fortuitous person faces death in order to keep, or develop a more essential part of themselves. That is to say, that death -our ultimate loss- is not our ultimate fear, and the avoidance of death should not be our ultimate goal. There are parts of our spirit which we should die to keep intact. The need to safeguard this ‘essential intactness’ allows us to face personal and physical injury.

Aquinas said that fortitude gives man a ‘frimness’ of mind, so as not to forsake the good on account of difficulties. The practice of fortitude is in part making a choice to uphold the good, and sacrifice ourselves in its name.

“To take death upon oneself is not in itself praiseworthy, but solely because of its subordination to good.”

Josef Pieper, The Four Cardinal Virtues, 1965, Fortitude, pg. 122

Giotto, Fortitude, 1306

Fortitude Is Not for the Foolhardy

“It is not the injury that matters primarily, but the realization of the good.”

Josef Pieper, The Four Cardinal Virtues, 1965, Fortitude, pg. 122

Pieper states that it is not virtuous if one casually tosses their life aside. Putting ourselves in the way of danger mindlessly is reckless and not brave. It is no sacrifice if we have no appreciation for our lives to begin with. The fortuitous person loves and appreciates their life, and yet chooses to offer it up to preserve the greater good, as to lose or sully this would ‘injure more deeply the inmost core of human existence.’

In order to show fortitude, we must first show prudence. We must use reason and foresight to know what good we are aiming for and what is essential for us to protect. To see clearly and thereby stand firmly by what is right and good. It is also dependent on justice, as without a ‘just cause’, there can be no fortitude. Justice is informed by prudence and fortitude is informed by both.

“Genuine fortitude presupposes a correct evaluation of things, of the things that one risks as well as of those which one hopes to preserve or gain by the risk.”

Josef Pieper, The Four Cardinal Virtues, 1965, Fortitude, pg. 124

Fortitude Is Not for the Fearless

To be fearless and to be brave are two different things. Fearlessness is blind, and virtuous fortitude requires a clear vision of reason and reality. If one doesn’t see the genuine risks that they face, or doesn’t appreciate the gravity of the situation, then they are not displaying fortitude. Pieper says that bravery cannot exist until a reasonable man is afraid, not out of timidity, but from a clear realisation of what he is about to face. He says that if a man, in the face of this true and reasonable fear, faces towards it, solely for the sake of the good, and for no other reason, then that man is truly brave.

“…the hands of the man most fit for battle are, literally, tied.”

Josef Pieper, The Four Cardinal Virtues, 1965, Fortitude, pg. 127

Sandro Botticelli, Fortitude, 1470 Tagged cardinal virtue, fortitude, theology, virtue

“Do not judge, or you too will be judged. For in the same way you judge others, you will be judged, and with the measure you use, it will be measured to you. Why do you look at the speck of sawdust in your brother’s eye and pay no attention to the plank in your own eye?” .

Matthew 7:1-3, New International Version

This is useful for us because it simplifies things. We can rationalize why we dislike that person- it’s because they are ‘blank’. It allows us to justify mistreating them or speaking badly of them. Better again, it gives us the moral high ground. Now, our mistreatment or disregard for them is not only reasonable, but right. Plenty of wicked behaviour has been cast down from the moral high ground.

We focus and labour so vigorously over their negative quality (as we see it), that all other aspects of their personality and being, evaporates.

What if we were forced to hold one of their positive qualities in conjunction with the negative? Forced to accept that both negative and positive qualities coexist in us all. We are so quick to disregard and demonize others, when we ourselves hold our own depravities. There are different levels of depravity of course, but each one of us have both darkness and light. It is disingenuous to disparage someone for their darkness without acknowledging their light, and without considering our own darkness.

“He then learns that in going down into the secrets of his own mind he has descended into the secrets of all minds.”

R.W. Emerson, 1837, The American Scholar

People are complicated.

The truth is, most of us don’t fully, or maybe even partly, understand ourselves. We don’t know why we do the things we do or feel the way we feel. Even though we experience the complexities of our own personalities, the battle between our own virtues and vices, we often fail to remember that others are going through the same. Perhaps it would be more helpful in our interactions, to search for the good in others, while searching for the worst in ourselves.

“A good man does not spy around for the black spots in others, but presses unswervingly on towards his mark.”

Marcus Aurelius, 161-180 AD, Meditations

Charles Le Brun, The Fall of the Rebel Angels, mid 1680’s Tagged bible, character, conflict, development, forgiveness, judgement, vice, virtue

“Be not forgetful of prayer. Every time you pray, if your prayer is sincere, there will be new feeling and new meaning in it, which will give you fresh courage, and you will understand that prayer is an education.

Fyodor Dostoevsky, 1879, The Brothers Karamazov

If prayer is a conversation between a believer and their saviour, how can anyone on the fence take part? And yet, we know that many people who class themselves as non-believers say that they do pray, especially in times of hardship. How many others, who refuse to admit that they partake in what they profess a senseless task, close their eyes tightly when alone, and plead for some relief from their sorrows, or avow their gratitude for having been spared a tragedy?

The absence of any deep discussion about God from the conversation that follows, is not a devaluation of faithful prayer. It’s just due to a lack of personal insight into the devout. One can presume that prayer takes on a different role and sense of profundity when performed in worship to God. What we are querying, is why someone would pray to a God that they claim they don’t believe in?

One rather quick and obvious answer, is that maybe we’re not as certain in our doubt as we think.

In the age of reason, faith in the non-material is becoming more and more rare. People tend to follow popular culture and opinion and declare it as their own without much thought or regard. Spiritual conviction doesn’t seem like something that should be decided upon because of current trends, but it does happen. People continue to overtly proclaim their scepticism, but in private they turn their eyes to the sky and begin a conversation.

“Some days, although we cannot pray, a prayer utters itself.”

Carol Ann Duffy, 1992, Prayer, The Times Saturday Review

Aside from asking for something, which is called a petitionary prayer, people often pray to show thanks.

We wake in the morning, sit at the side of the bed, bow our heads and give thanks that we are alive. We give thanks for our children’s health, for the companionship of our love and the unity of our family. And why do we do this if not to offer praise to God? Declaring our gratitude helps orientate ourselves. We place precious gems together, which act as our centre point. Like the sun to the earth, we revolve around these critical focal points in our life and we act accordingly. It lets us clearly see what is important to us and what makes us happy and we can base our actions on what will maintain those things. It reduces the noise and the clutter by prioritising what is critical to cherish and maintain in our lives, and by allowing us to see all that comes secondary. Lest we take precious gems for granted and lose our way, we decide upon and declare our gratitude.

As we do in petitionary prayer, why would we ask for anything if we know it will not be answered?

Unless we believe ourselves to be masters of the universe, there are things out of our control. These are the things we are more likely to pray for. Even if we don’t have a complete, or any, image of an all-powerful God who controls everything, we know for certain that we don’t. Whether you want to call it fate, fortune, luck or arbitrary chance, there are things that are out of our hands but that effect our lives directly. In petitioning for the recovery of a family member, or the safe arrival of a child, or shelter in a storm, we are asking for grace. For the ways of the world, that are so out of our control, to align momentarily with our own deepest desires. It is always those things closest to our hearts that we petition for. Not many people idly prayer for material gain, or physical prowess- we pray, and plead, for the things dearest to us.

Maybe prayer without addressing God is not prayer at all, maybe it’s just meditation or rumination.

But when the chips are down and we’re encumbered with sorrow or strife, who are we pleading with? When a child has been saved and we drop to our knees, repeating our thanks, who are we thanking? We don’t need to figure these questions out right away, but it stands that there is value in prayer for people, even for those who can’t align themselves with God. If you feel the want or need to pray, then pray for its sake alone.

“Be not afraid to pray—to pray is right. Pray, if thou canst, with hope; but ever pray, Though hope be weak, or sick with long delay;

Pray in the darkness if there be no light.”